Law and Justice Jurisprudence

Question: Discuss about theLaw and Justicefor Jurisprudence. Answer: Introduction Law has been described as a body of principles that are recognized and applied by the State while administering justice. However, much debate has been going on as to what makes a particular rule the law. According to the natural law theorists, it has been claimed that a law can be considered as valid only if it conforms to a high moral basis. On the other hand, positivists like Hart are of the opinion that if a law has been made properly, it is always valid and therefore it should be obeyed by the people regardless of its content. On the other hand, as a concept, justice can be defined simply as equality of treatment and fairness. Although it appears to be relatively simple, it is worth mentioning that the meaning of justice is significantly subjective. Therefore, what is justice for one person can be considered as total injustice by the other person.[1] Therefore, a number of theorists have tried to define the term "justice" and in this regard they have also expressed their views ab out justice can best be achieved.[2] In the present essay, the relationship that exists between the law and justice has been explored. Distributive justice is the term that is related with the allocation of wealth, rights and responsibilities in the society. It has been suggested by Aristotle that these amenities need to be distributed on the grounds of merit. Therefore, those who have contributed the most are also the worthiest and as a result, they should receive the most. In this way, according to Aristotle, justice is proportionality.[3] On the other hand, if the resources are allocated on the basis of need, it would be unjust. The reason is that in such a case even the laziest person will also receive the same benefits as would be received by the hard-working people. An example of this can be given in the form of the present state pension scheme. This is in tune with the theory of distributive justice of Aristotle. Therefore, the persons who have contributed for 30 years receive a pension from the State.[4] This can be described as a reward that is commensurate with the contribution made by them. On the other hand, the persons who have worked for a shorter period, for example for 20 years, are provided a smaller amount due to the reason that their contribution was also smaller. Therefore, the persons who prescribed to the theory of Aristotle would consider that the pension scheme was just and the people were receiving their about that is commensurate with their contribution. However, the significant issue present, in case of Aristotle's theory is that the theory fails to account for the persons who cannot contribute as a result of their inability to work, for example, the disabled people. The government faced this issue when it introduced the personal independence payments, which replaced the disability allowance and were provided to only those persons who could not work instead of the persons who were too lazy to work. This would be considered as just by Aristotle, because the persons who are getting better off working should contribute to the society.[5] But as compared to Aristotle, it was the belief of Karl Marx that wealth, rights and responsibilities need to be designated on the basis of the needy instead of merit. He was of the opinion that amenities need to be allocated on the basis of the maxim, "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need". In this way, this maxim refers to the idea that each person should receive what he or she needs, regardless of the contribution made by such a person. For example, in case of NHS, the application of this theory can be seen. In this case, the persons who are need of treatment are provided the same, irrespective of the fact how much they have contributed or paid for it. However, this is in conflict with the fury of Aristotle. The reason is that in this case, the persons who made the least contribution to society would be divided and this cannot be considered as justice.[6] In the same way, another issue that is present in case of the theory of Marx is that in such a cas e, there will be no incentive to work left for the people. Therefore, if everyone is going to receive the same rewards, regardless of the contribution made by them, then what is the need for a person to work hard? In this way the overall criticism raised by distributive justice is related with the lack of agreement that exists between these two theories. It is not possible to define what is just distribution when these theories don't agree with each other regarding who should receive how much reward? On the other hand, corrective justice depends on the principle that wrongs need to be corrected by using fair remedy or punishment. Under English law, this has been achieved by the use of sanctions in criminal law and providing remedies under the civil law.[7] For example, in case of civil law, a fair remedy that can be granted in case of nuisance would be an injunction. This ensures that the wrongdoing is stopped and in this way it is a just remedy.[8] However, issues are also present with corrective justice due to the reason that it can be restrictive, and trying to provide retribution. For example, in case of the life sentence provided for murder, it relies on biological principle of corrective justice according to which a life or the life. But it does not allow for differentiation between the motives of compassion and evil.[9] Another alternative theory of justice is that of Utilitarianism. The purpose behind this theory is to increase human happiness by increasing pleasure and at the same time, diminishing pain. For the Utilitarians, justice is related with the promotion of the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. In this case, the sum of human happiness is examined by numerical means and the happiness of each person is equal in value. However, Kant did not agree with the Utilitarian ideal.[10] According to him, an act is more significant than the consequences. Therefore, he states that if the act is wrong, then it is not significant how much happiness has been produced as a result of such an act. An example of the conflict that exists between the reasoning of Utilitarians and Kant is related with torture. Therefore, according to the Utilitarians, culture can be considered as acceptable if it is for the benefit of the majority. On the other hand, according to Kantians, torture can never b e permitted. Social justice is also another type of justice. The hypothetical theory of social justice was created by Rawls. He stated that a veil of ignorance was off the significance. According to Rawls, if nobody was aware of their place in the society, then they may want a set of inalienable rights, as well as the implementation of universal freedoms. These freedoms would include the freedom to speech and the right to assembly. According to Rawls, theory, it was stated that people may be looking for a less rigid social structure. Therefore every person will have the same opportunities and as a result, the success of each person will rely on the marriage alone instead of the socio-economic status of the person. However the main criticism the theory propounded by Rawls is that it is purely hypothetical.[11] As it will be impossible to start a society from zero, therefore it is just impossible to implement the theory of justice propounded by Rawls. There are many experts who do not agree with Ra wls theory. According to these opponents, we need to work with the society that is already present and similarly the state should not be allowed to interfere in the redistribution of wealth that has been legitimately acquired by the persons. These experts have also argued that the state should not be allowed to interfere in the private lives of the people unless they had done something wrong.[12] Therefore, according to this idea of having a minimal state, the fact can be disregarded that there are certain persons who need the intervention of the society. An example in this regard can be given of the persons who are surviving on disability benefits.[13] Therefore, if the state fails to assist these people, they will not be in a position to support themselves. However, this is contrary to the theory of justice propounded by Karl Marx as in such a case the people will not be receiving what is needed by them. All the theories that have been discussed above need to be applied to the issues presented in procedural and substantive law. In this context, procedure law can be described as the law denoting the procedures and methods that are used for the purpose of enforcing rights and duties. When an offender is being sentenced by the judges, there are several factors that need to be taken into consideration. These factors include the purpose of sentencing, the crime and also the presence of any mitigating or aggravating factors. In view of these considerations, it is necessary that the sentence given needs to be just. In his theory, Aristotle has talked about the scales of justice. He had stated that the gains and losses of the parties need to be equaled out so that the offender does not benefit from the crime and the victim is not required to suffer a loss. In the process of sentencing, this should be clearly reflected. The result is that in case of less serious crimes, less serious punishment is given and vice versa. The rights and duties are created, defined and regulated by the substantive law. Similarly, the sentencing practices that are adopted by the judges are generally regulated by the principle of proportionality. Therefore, the serious the crime, the harsher is the sanction imposed by the court. However, this is not true in case of all the crimes. For example, in case of murder, it is mandatory for the court to award life sentence. Irrespective of the motive, a life sentence is given to all the murderers. Therefore, by describing a minimum sentence, there is no scope for proportionality and as a result it may lead to harsh decisions.[14] While those believing in the theory of corrective justice may claim that this is fair, and the persons who have killed another person deserve to have their life taken from them.[15] However this sentence cannot be considered as just in case of mercy killers, for example. Therefore, it needs to be mentioned that the law for murder does not distinguish bet ween the murder that has been committed for malevolent reasons and the murderers that were motivated by familial love. However, it still appears to be unjust that someone who was killed another person due to compassion will also be given the same sentence as is the case of serial killers. But in this case, it can be said that the act of murder is wrong, regardless of the motives and as a result, it should be punished accordingly. Therefore, it can be concluded that the basic purpose of law is to promote justice. But there can be a number of cases in which it has been shown that this objective has not been effectively achieved. After exploring several different theories of justice, it becomes clear that the idea is subjective. Therefore, for one person, justice could be related with achieving individual freedoms, at the same time for another person, justice can be achieved if the majority is happy. As a result of this variation, it can be said that perhaps justice cannot be achieved consistently. It is natural for one party to feel that the outcome of the case is not just. However, the best that can be achieved by the law is that the people should feel that fair and impartial trial are within their reach. Bibliography Bayles D Michael (1992 ) Harts Legal Philosophy- An Examination, London, Dordrecht, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers Bodenheimer, Edgar (1974) Jurisprudence The Philosophy and the Method of Law, New Delhi: Universal Law Publishing Co Pvt Ltd Bodenheimer, Edgar (1974) Jurisprudence The Philosophy and the Method of Law, New Delhi: Universal Law Publishing Co Pvt Ltd Carl, W., Frege's Theory of Sense and Reference: Its Origins and Scope (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994 Coffa, J. A., The Semantic Tradition From Kant to Carnap: To the Vienna Station (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991 Dhyani, SN (2004) Fundamental of Jurisprudence, Allahabad: Central Law Agency Dias, RWM (1994) Jurisprudence New Delhi: Aditya Books Private Ltd Dummett, M., Platonism', in Michael Dummett (ed.), Truth and Other Enigmas (London: Duckworth, 1978 Finch, John D (1974) Introduction to Legal Theory, (Second Ed First Indian Reprint) New Delhi: Universal Law Publishing Co Pvt Ltd Fuller, Lon L (1969) The Morality of Law, Second Ed, Indian Reprint 2004, New Delhi: Universal Law Publishing Co Pvt Ltd Hart, H., The Concept of Law (2 ed.) (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994) Hart, HLA (1961) Concept of Law Oxford: Clarendon Press Hart, HLA (1963) Law Liberty and Morally Stanford: Stanford University Press Hart, HLA (1968) Punishment and Responsibility: Essays in the Philosophy of Law, Oxford: Clarendon Press Hart, HLA (1983) Essays in Jurisprudence and Philosophy

Economic advantages and disadvantages of immigration into the U.S.

Judgment (Poem) essays

Judgment (Poem) essays Judgment, we put on each and every individual who lives and breathes. Whether it is black, white, short, tall, fat or thin. In this domain, it seems we cannot win. Be not judgmental, says our father who art I heaven. This being one of the fewer sins we take the credit, yet for granted. Wondering eyes send tremors piercing through my soul. Why? Because society says its right. Driven with the need to feed and provide; With mind, body and soul, the unfailing love I store inside. For those who are still asleep in this society- built world. The prejudice imposed by society I suppose. Wishing they can open their eyes; and feast upon reality inside. I live this lesbian life, like a man searching for that beautiful queen, to call my wife. Im now hated and judged- misjudged I believe. Unable to endure what people perceive, Yet ready to show love, give love to all whom will receive. No one said stop the world for love that lies within. Woman stand tall and live life as you see, Be who you want to be, disregard society. Some say Im not heaven material. Are we not all from the man up above? Right is right and wrong is right too. Only in your eyes, you cant see the things you do. Worrying about what he, she, it or they are doing. Stop! Sit, Contemplate and regulate your mind, thoughts and self- control. Think about what is happening to your society- built soul. When the world roars in distaste for your soul, Its too late, to transform your thoughts. By me communicating how I think, makes me society- built. Stating the way I feel makes me the judgmental person that so ...

How Corporate Governance Plays An Important Role In Managing A Essay

How Corporate Governance Plays An Important Role In Managing A Successfull Family Business PLC In The Long Run - Essay Example According to some survey, at present in many countries family businesses account for as high as 90 percent of all the enterprises situated in those nations. On average more than 75 percent of all the companies in the world are family owned. In Europe, the share of family business at aggregate industry level is more than 70 percent. This kind of dominant presence of family businesses in all over the world, has forced a number of people to argue that in any society across the world the most substantial economic force is nothing but family owned or controlled businesses. The dominant presence of family businesses in a large number of industries, however, does not come as a surprise. In fact, it would have come as a surprise, had it been found that in certain industry family businesses were encountering significant difficulties while making their entry into the industry. The abundance of family controlled or family owned businesses in any industry at any part of the world is actually a common phenomenon because of the reason that in any industry a new business is generally started by some common friends or a group of people within a family to give shape to their common ambition. Whether a firm started as a family business will continue is a family controlled firm on long run, is, however, a quite different issue. Whether a firm will choose to be a family owned firm only even in long run, or will restructure its ownership pattern to become a non-family owned firm depends on a number of factors including the pattern of internal development of the firm, the capacity the family ownership in handling various management issues, and numerous external factors like the pattern of market developments. Very often ‘family factor’ of any family owned or controlled business as a vital key to succeed in its business endeavors. However,

IR---business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

IR---business - Essay Example Therefore, I consider that IR reflects a system of rules which aim to protect primarily the rights of employees – even in many cases the above target are not fully achieved. I believe that such failure is the result of the lack of cooperation and communication within the organization, which are necessary prerequisites for the successful implementation of any IR system. It should be noted that the role of IR in each organization is not the same – for example, in my organization the views of employees on IR are positive. In other organizations where the IR framework has been used for the promotion of the interests of the employer, employees are not supportive to the specific framework. 2) How are your conditions of employment determined (Contract or agreement) and how does your process work? The hiring of an employee is based on a contract signed between the employer and the employee. In this contract, reference is made to all terms of the particular agreement, for exampl e to the hours of work/ compensation. In any case, additional benefits are arranged between the employer and the employee since the entrance in the workplace. The change of the terms of an employment contract is not allowed in the future, except from the case that such initiative is taken after a relevant decision of the employer. Also, the store manager monitors the performance of employees in his store on a weekly basis. The store manager also decides on the promotion of employees in accordance with their performance. It should be noted that there are weekly meetings in which employees can share their views with the store manager; if changes need to be made regarding the distribution of tasks or hours of work, then relevant suggestions can be made by the employees to the store manager in these meetings. The hiring process used in my organization can be characterized as quite satisfactory – being aligned with the rules of IR; however, in regard to the monitoring of the emplo yees’ performance and their rewarding, still improvements would be made; the power of the store manager to decide on all aspects of employees’ rights – in the context of a particular store – can be an advantage but also a drawback. In the organization where I work the store manager will be replaced in the next 6 months; the views of the new store manager on IR will be critical regarding the employees’ rights and benefits in all the departments of the specific store. 3) What impact has the new system of workplace relations had on your working conditions? At a first level, because of IR the benefits of employees in the workplace have been increased – referring to both monetary and non-monetary benefits, for example, the payment – based benefit, the bonus at the end of each year and the partial cover by the employer of the medical insurance of employees. Also, the communication between the employer and the employees has been improved, ev en at not a high level. Another aspect of the involvement of IR in my organization has been the increase of competition among employees, as result of the

Analysis of Proteins in Fish Muscle Tissue

Analysis of Proteins in Fish Muscle Tissue Introduction In vertebrates, the muscular system is an anatomical organ system controlled through the nervous system. Derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells, these contractile tissues-of skeletal, smooth, or cardiac origin-are responsible for blood circulation, internal organ function, heat production, and organ protection.[1] With the skeletal system integrated, voluntary and reflexive movement, as well as posture and body position, become possible. Surrounded by an epimysium, skeletal muscles are composed of many long muscle fibers lined with endomysium, which are bound together by perimysium into bundles called fascicles.[2] Within these myocytes, there are smaller strands of myofibrils that contain myofilaments (or sarcomeres) the basic unit of a striated muscle tissue. These repeating sarcomeres contract in response to nerve signals by means of sliding filaments: actin and myosin. The thin filaments consist of two chains of spherical actin proteins twisted in a helical co nformation and troponin as a contraction regulator.[2] Each actin molecule has a myosin-binding site that is covered by tropomyosin during muscle relaxation. Having a head and tail region, myosin II proteins generally form the thick filaments with its six polypeptide chains and can cross bridge with actin filaments due to their elasticity and contractibility properties. Specifically, the motor domain of its two heavy chains adopt an ÃŽÂ ±-helical coiled coil configuration and couple ATP hydrolysis with its motion while its two light chains-which wrap around the neck region of each heavy chain at the IQ sequence motif-have regulatory roles[1]. Although this major multi-subunit protein has remained greatly stabile across the animal kingdom over time, myosin light chains have undergone evolutionary divergences for different species; however, the essential structure and functions have remained highly conserved.[3] Caused by genetic mutations, only favorable variations are passed thro ugh this process allows for specialization, speciation, and evolution that eventually increases survival ability: DNA (genes)  ® RNA ® Protein  ® Trait  ® Evolution. Protein gel electrophoresis and western blotting can be used to compare myosin light chains of different species by identifying any commonalities or alterations in specific subunits. Since proteins reflect changes in the gene pool, the phenotype and function as well as form of an organism can be identified, allowing for the study of their physiological adaptations to the environment. Through comparative proteomics-defined as the analysis of differentially expressed proteins with comparison between at least two protein profiles-changes in the proteome that have been caused by development, diseases, and the environment can be identified allowing for assessment of biological variability and dataset comparability.[4] The objective of this lab was to extract proteins from unknown samples of fish muscle tissue and then qualitatively analyze this protein mixture by performing sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) twice. The protein bands of the first gel-representing the total amount of proteins found in the tissue homogenate-were stained and visualized at 595nm with the Bio-Safe Coomassie Blue G-250 dye at 595nm while the fractionated proteins of the second gel were electroblotted onto a nitrocellulose membrane via Western blotting where the specific protein of interest was selectively immuno-detected by chemiluminescence with a horseshoe radish peroxidase-linked secondary antibody. [3,4] Accordingly, the goal of this report is to identify the different types of proteins found in fish muscle-specifically of shark, tilapia, skitter, and salmon-required for muscle contraction and movement and to establish whether they are highly conserved or variable across all animal species. Consequently, information about the environment, niche, or physiological stresses faced by the organism can be elucidated as specific protein modifications that alter muscle function and performance work to increase their fitness and adaptiveness.[2] Differences in proteins may reveal information about the evolutionary relationships among various organisms and by understanding this diversity in the natural world, many biological problems can be solved to improve the quality of human life.       Materials and Methods First, unknown tissue samples from two different fish species were prepared for protein extraction: in a 1.5mL microcentrifuge tube, 250ÃŽÂ ¼L of Laemmli (1x SDS) sample buffer was added as well as the minced tissue. After gently agitating the contents by flicking the tube, it was left to incubate at room temperature for five minutes. Next, the tube was centrifuged to pellet the tissue; this allowed for transfer of the supernatant buffer to a new 1.5mL screw cap tube, which was then boiled at 95 °C for five minutes. Second, SDS PAGE was performed on two separate precast TGX gels (purchased from Bio-Rad) since both Coomassie Blue staining and Western blotting were required. Refer to the BIO314 experiment 7 lab manual for instructions on how the gel apparatus was assembled with the Mini-Protean gels and tetra cell. When this was completed, the loading scheme for Coomassie staining involved pipetting the protein ladder (Biorad cat #161-0375) in lane 1 (at 7 ÃŽÂ ¼L/line) and the actin/myosin standards in lane 6 (at 5 ÃŽÂ ¼L/line). The rest of the lanes were used to load the samples (at 10ÃŽÂ ¼L/line). The same set-up was done for the immunoblotting gel, except only 5ÃŽÂ ¼L/line of each boiled sample was loaded. Refer to the BIO314 experiment 7 lab manual for instructions on how these solutions were loaded. After all of the samples have been loaded, the gel box lid was connected to the electrode assembly by matching the red and black leads with their corresponding electrodes. Then, the leads were plugged into the power supply, which was subsequently turned on and set to run at a constant voltage of 200V. This process was terminated at 30 minutes when the loading dye started to exit the gel. Refer to the BIO314 experiment 7 lab manual for instructions on how the gels were removed. Third, Bio-Safe Coomassie staining was done on the appropriate gel-with samples loaded at 10ÃŽÂ ¼L/line-which was peeled from the plate: it was then inserted into a container of deionized water and washed for 5 minutes on a rocking platform. Afterwards, the gel was transferred to another container with Coomassie staining solution again, this was left on a rocking platform for 15 minutes. Upon completion, the stained gel was put in deionized water (destaining solution) and the lid was capped onto this container, which was placed onto the rocking platform for 15 minutes. Fourth, the immunoblot was prepared and transferred: with blunt-ended tweezers, the PVDF membrane and bottom stack was placed on the cassette base; the membrane was left facing up. Any air bubbles seen were immediately removed with a blot roller. Since one mini gel was employed, the stack was centered in the cassette. Then, the second gel-with samples loaded at 5ÃŽÂ ¼L/line-was peeled from the plate (from the SD S-PAGE step) and stacked over-top of the PVDF membrane. Any air bubbles present were subsequently removed using a blot roller. Next, a second wetted top-ion transfer stack was placed above this gel. This assembled sandwich was rolled thoroughly with a blot roller to prevent any air bubbles from being trapped. Finally, the lid was closed and locked onto the cassette and this was set inside the turbo blotter to initiate the transfer. When the electro-transfer process was finished, the blots were dismantled and stored (at -20 °C) according to the instructions written in the BIO314 experiment 7 lab manual. After one week, the Western blot-that had been rocked on a platform with block solution A for 1 hour-was placed into 10mL of blocking solution B and 5ÃŽÂ ¼L of primary antibody was added on that solution with swirling; this was incubated for 20 minutes. Upon completion, the gel was washed with 15mL of wash buffer (three times, each with 10 minutes of incubation); then 15mL of blo cking solution B and 5ÃŽÂ ¼L of secondary antibody was added and incubated at 15 minutes. The three wash steps were repeated. With the wash buffer drained, the membrane was put on a plastic paper protector (with the protein side up) and 400ÃŽÂ ¼L of substrate (made by mixing reagent A and B in 1:1 ratio, 200ÃŽÂ ¼L each) was spread evenly across the middle of the blot. A plastic protector was then added over it and this was imaged with a digital imager for chemiluminescence detection and analyzed using the BioRad ChemiDOC-MP Imaging System for the molecular weight and signal intensity of the protein bands (refer to the instructions posted on blackboard on how this program was operated). Results and Discussion According to the Coomassie-stained gel, the variability in the staining intensity of the protein bands in lanes 2, 3, 4 and 5-for skeletal muscle tissue samples from shark, tilapia, skitter, and salmon-signify the difference in the relative abundance of individual polypeptides in each organism (note that lane 5, band 11 was used as the reference). Influenced by factors such as protein expression and control, these species have generated different quantities of proteins with similar masses in their muscle tissues as they have adapted to specific environmental and biochemical interactions.[5] In figure 1, the potential mass and intensity values of myosin-light chain (MLC) are as follows: shark (15.43kDa at 0.37, 17.65 at 1.71, 20.64 at 1.09, 21.60 at 0.25, 23.05 at 0.69, 23.79 at 0.92, and 25.54 at 1.02); tilapia (15.33kDa at 1.34, 16.42 at 0.75, 19.02 at 0.35, 20.37 at 1.56, 21.47 at 0.34, and 23.79 at 0.36); skitter (15.92kDa at 2.09, 17.99 at 0.94, 20.12 at 0.48, and 23.75 at 0.55) and salmon (16.07kDa at 1.13, 20.12 at 0.31, 21.08 at 0.64, 21.76 at 0.26, and 24.92 at 0.34). Due to selective immunodetection of MLC proteins in Western blotting by a primary antibody, the various protein bands lying in the general MLC range of 15-25kDa in the Coomassie gel can be narrowed to: shark (23.94kDa at 1.33); tilapia (24.47 at 0.70); skitter (24.47 at 0.36); salmon (24.47 at 0.22) and myosin marker (24.47 at 2.40) all of which resemble the myosin light chain isoform I (>20kDa) as isoforms II (20kDa) and III (15kDa) have lower masses; with a greater variability of myosin, tilapia has an additional band of 20.68kDa at 0.39 that resembles isoform II. [5] The other bands were dismissed as non-specific background interferences (note that lane 4, band 5 was used as the reference for the immunoblot). The high specificity of primary antibodies in probing their target allows for its wide-use in proteomic research as a reliable immunodetection technique; since proteins can indica te evolutionary relatedness or the presence of genetic diseases, their role as biomarkers has allowed for measurements of physiological changes as well as their quantifications.[6] In the appendix, all of the protein bands for the four species have been assigned a protein that corresponds to its molecular weight. From this, it can be denoted that sharks are more closely related to salmons than tilapia and skitters, both of which are tied for second place. However, based on fish phylogeny: sharks and skitters-belonging to the same class called Chondrichthyes-have diverged prior to the class of Actinopterygiis, which include both salmon and tilapia.[7] In terms of classification relative to the order, sharks (of Elasmobranchii) have the greatest evolutionary relationship with skitters (of Rajiformes), then salmons (of Salmoniformes), and lastly tilapia (of Perciformes).[7] As a hexameric ATPase cellular motor protein, myosin is composed of four light chains (MLC)-two non-phosphorylatable essential alkali chains, two phosphorylatable regulatory chains-and two heavy chains (MHC). Specifically, the protein bands of these light chains have a molecular weight as a range from 15 to 25kDa; this diversity in the masses occur largely from alternative RNA splicing mechanisms that generate multiple tissue-/developmental stage-specific isoforms.[7] Although these polymorphic variations do not significantly alter the actin-activated ATPase activity of the myosin-heavy chain, they affect the actin-filament sliding velocities and kinetics-leading to different force-generating abilities.[8] In an evolutionary context, the existence of these hybrid molecules has been adopted by muscles-in response to changing functional demands-to shorten this translocation time in order to increase their overall fitness. Consequently, numerous variants of slow and fast light chains we re developed despite the underlying plasticity of striated muscles.[7] Voluntary muscles are divided into slow twitch and fast twitch muscles. The main difference is that the former red muscle contracts for longer periods of time with little force, require an oxygen-rich operating environment, and contain only two distinct light chains while the latter white type contracts quickly and powerfully for only short bursts of anaerobic activity as they become exhausted due to lactic acid buildup, have glycogenolytic capacity, and possess three different light chain subunits.[8] Over 90% of swimming muscles from sharks are composed of myotomes that can create massive propulsive forces by contracting their high numbers of white fibres; only a few such as the Great White incorporate bands of red muscle to elevate endurance over strength.[9] Accordingly, this explains why the MLC band on the Western blot has the greatest intensity of 1.33 relative to the other species. Conversely, fish species are generally composed of endothermic red-segmented muscles in their t runk musculature-allowing for their stiff-bodied, slow undulatory swimming motions.[6] Due to their decreased mass of white muscles, MLC bands of tilapia, skitter, and salmon are of lower intensity at 0.70, 0.36, and 0.22 respectively. Relative to mammals, fish myosins share the same light chain patterns but have higher variability in MLC mass and quantity due to adaptive differences in movement between red and white myofibrils.[6] Since they have larger phylogenetic diversity, there is an enormous range of contraction speeds and swimming styles among homologous muscles.[6] For example, fast twitch muscles of rabbit, sheep, and chicken have three light chain components at 250kDa-whereas only one is found homologous at 180kDa among pike, dogfish, mackerel, angler-fish, and carp.[5] Moreover, their poikilothermic-nature may have contributed to these light chain divergences as they were forced to adjust to fluctuating environment temperatures that required specific muscle responses fo r survival.[9] Sources of errors with the techniques employed contributed in hindering the accuracy of the results. First, the amount of protein stained with Coomassie dye varied greatly between the sample replicates since the dye may complex with the anionic detergent in its free cationic form interfering with protein concentration estimates. Moreover, this dye selectively targets amino acid resides arginine, tryptophan, tyrosine, histidine, and phenylalanine; however, the assay performed responds primarily to arginine residues eight-times higher than other ones listed above.[2] Second, reproducibility of the sample preparation and protein extraction steps was an issue due to variability among the skills of the student, which may have caused the quantity differences seen among the replicates. For example: if more tissues were added for one specie, the increased concentration of proteins loaded into the lane would be misled for a true difference in expression among or between the species. To over come these problems: one, an automated protein extraction systems should be employed since its robotic liquid handing technology can control for errors and contaminations leading to greater reproducibility and accuracy; two, silver staining can be substituted for Coomassie due to its higher sensitivity (0.2ng versus 7ng respectively); third, adjustable single-/multi-channel Rainin electronic pipettes should be used as its fully automated and repetitive micro-pipetting has superior consistency allowing for higher throughput work.[4,5,6,9] Overall, it has been discovered that-irrespective of muscle tissue origin-myosin light chain molecules are heterogeneous in mass and intensity and the existence of phasically active fast muscles versus slow tonic muscles has led to characteristic light chain patterns among different fish species. Based on similarities and divergences in the overall protein content and intensities of the different fish species mentioned above, sharks are deemed to be more closely related to salmons than tilapia and skitters both of which are tied for second place. However, according to fish phylogeny, sharks and skitters have diverged before salmon and tilapia, leading to an order classification of sharks (Chondrichthyes, Elasmobranchii) having the greatest evolutionary relationship with skitters (Chondrichthyes, Rajiformes), then salmons (Actinopterygiis, Salmoniformes), and lastly tilapia (Actinopterygiis, Perciformes). Radical alterations in their muscle proteome may have originated from adaptive responses to environmental stresses-i.e. osmotic, anaerobic, and thermal condition changes- or during symbiosis and development since cells can make different sets of proteins based on its specific spatial-temporal conditions.[5] The inferences made in this lab come with great uncertainty due many accuracy and reproducibility problems. Thus, fluorescence two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis can be substituted for SDS-PAGE; high-throughput proteomic technologies like micro arrays, mass spectrometry-based methods, protein chips, and reverse-phased protein-microarrays can be used for protein profiling and detection; and hybrid separation-analysis techniques such as reversed-phase chromatography-ESI ionization online analysis systems can be utilized for greater sensitivity, accuracy, and precision all of which allow an experimenter to draw firmer conclusions. References Bandman, E. et al. Developmental Appearance of Myosin Heavy and Light Chain Isoforms in-Vitro and in-Vivo in Chicken Skeletal Muscle. Developmental Biology. 1982, 2, 508-518. Chatfield, S. Experiment 7: Extraction and Electrophoresis of Proteins: Immunoblot Preparation. BIO 314 Laboratory Manual. 2017. Chatfield, S. Experiment 8: Development of Immunoblots (Western Blots). BIO 314 Laboratory Manual. 2017. Focant, B. et al. Subunit Composition of Fish Myofibrils: The Light Chains of Myosin. Journal of Biochemistry. 1976, 110-120. Lowey, S. et al. Function of Skeletal Muscle Myosin Heavy and Light Chain Isoforms by an in Vitro Motility Assay. The Journal of Biological Chemistry.1993, 268, 20414-20418. Lowey, S. et al. Light Chains from Fast and Slow Muscle Myosins. Nature. 1971, 81-85. Syme, D. et al. Red Muscle Function in Stiff-Bodied Swimmers: There and Almost Back Again. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2011, 1507-1515. Tomanek, L. et al. Environmental Proteomics: Changes in the Proteome of Marine Organisms in Response to Environmental Stress, Pollutants, Infection, Symbiosis, and Development. Journal of Animal Science. 2003, 373-390. Young, R. et al. Structural Analysis of Myosin Genes Using Recombinant DNA Techniques. Journal of Animal Science. 1968, 259-268.

Gus germs and steel Essay -- English Literature

Gus germs and steel 1. Yali asks Diamond, â€Å"Why is it that you white people developed sp much cargo and brought it to New Guinea, but we black people had little cargo of our own.† 2. Jared Diamond’s thesis seems to be that external factors such as geography can affect the fate of human societies. In other words, what separates the winners from the losers is geography. Chapter 1 1. â€Å"The Great Leap Forward† is when human history developed about 50,000 years ago. 2. The giant moas in New Zealand and the giant lemurs in Madagascar were exterminated by humans. 3. 15,000 years ago the American West looked like Africa’s Serengeti Plains. It was filled with elephants, giraffes, zebras, and other African animals. All of these animals living in the American West were either killed off by Clovis hunters or died due to drought. 4. All of the giant animals residing in Africa were able to survive because there were no extreme weather conditions and there were not nearly as many deadly hunters in Africa as there were in America. Chapter 3 1. Pizzaro’s capture of Atahuallpa â€Å"offers a broad window onto modern history† because it has happened many times since then. 2. Technology, or the guns and the steel, was used in exterminating the Incas. The germs that the Spaniards brought over on their horses produced small pox. 3. Diamond refers to the battle at Cajamarca a collision because two of the greatest empires â€Å"collided† in a huge fight. Chapter 4 1. Societies with successful food production would grow because there was enough food for everyone. The greatest food producers became the world conquerors because they were a big society with big ideas for technology. 2. The development of diseas... ...teel, I would have to say that the most decisive factor would be the germs. A good example is Smallpox; the virus alone killed more people than either guns or steel. 4. The East lost its enormous lead to the West (Europe) because Europe developed a merchant system, capitalism, and patent protection for invertors. Europe also did not have a dictatorship like China, so inventors in Europe were worry free. 5. China lost its technological lead to Europe because they were a dictatorship and had high taxations. 6. China’s connectedness became a disadvantage for them because their fertile crescent had no other geographical advantages other than domesticating wild plants and animals. China also had an absolute despot that was controlling the country. 7. The histories of the Fertile Crescent and China hold important lessons for the modern world including.